Environmental Solutions: ETP, WTP, STP in Bangladesh

Executive Summary

Bangladesh, a nation characterized by high population density and rapid industrialization, confronts significant challenges in managing its water resources. The escalating water pollution, primarily stemming from untreated industrial and municipal discharges, necessitates robust environmental solutions. Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs), Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs), and Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) are crucial components of the country’s strategy to address these issues.¹

A comprehensive regulatory framework, including the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA) of 1995 and the subsequent Environment Conservation Rules (ECR) 1997 and 2023, is in place under the purview of the Department of Environment (DoE). These laws mandate pollution control and set discharge standards.³ However, the effective enforcement of these regulations remains a considerable challenge, often leading to widespread non-compliance in industrial wastewater treatment.⁸

The current state of implementation reveals critical gaps across all three areas. Industrial ETPs frequently operate inefficiently or are bypassed entirely, undermining their intended environmental benefits. Municipal STPs, particularly in major urban centers like Dhaka, possess severely limited treatment capacity, with only a fraction of daily sewage being properly treated.¹⁰ While access to “improved” drinking water sources is reported to be high, the proportion of the population with access to “safely managed” drinking water is considerably lower, indicating persistent quality concerns.¹³

The primary impediments to effective water management include inadequate and outdated infrastructure, a critical shortage of skilled personnel for operation and maintenance, persistent financial constraints, and the complex issue of inconsistent raw effluent quality compounded by the emergence of new pollutants like microplastics and antibiotics.¹⁵

Despite these formidable hurdles, significant opportunities exist for advancing environmental solutions in Bangladesh. These include the adoption of advanced treatment technologies such as Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) and Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs), the promotion of innovative water recycling and reuse initiatives (e.g., Zero Liquid Discharge), and the increasing embrace of Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) and green financing mechanisms to mobilize necessary investments.¹⁶ Notable projects, such as the Dasherkandi Sewerage Treatment Plant, demonstrate the feasibility of successful large-scale municipal wastewater treatment, providing a valuable model for future interventions.²¹

This report examines the landscape of ETP, STP, and WTP in Bangladesh, detailing their functions, the prevailing regulatory environment, current implementation status, and the multifaceted challenges encountered. It also explores promising opportunities, emerging technologies, and strategic recommendations aimed at fostering sustainable water management and safeguarding public health across the nation.

1. Introduction to Water Treatment in Bangladesh

1.1 The Critical Need for Water Treatment in Bangladesh

Bangladesh, a nation with one of the highest population densities globally, is experiencing rapid industrialization and urbanization. This swift development, while contributing to economic growth, places immense pressure on its finite freshwater resources.² A significant consequence of this growth is the widespread discharge of industrial and municipal wastewater, much of which remains untreated or inadequately treated, leading to severe pollution of rivers, lakes, and groundwater.³

The environmental repercussions of this pollution are profound. It results in extensive ecological damage, harming aquatic life and disrupting delicate ecosystems. Furthermore, the contamination poses serious health risks to both human populations and wildlife. Waterborne diseases are a persistent threat, and pollutants can enter the food chain, accumulating in organisms and leading to long-term health problems.³ The textile and leather sectors, which are vital to Bangladesh’s export-oriented economy, are particularly water-intensive and are recognized as major contributors to this pollution. Untreated effluent from these industries is a primary source of the poor surface water quality observed around Dhaka and other industrial hubs.²²

The rapid economic expansion, particularly in industries like textiles, has been a powerful engine for Bangladesh’s economic growth, with the ready-made garment (RMG) sector contributing a substantial portion of the country’s export revenue.⁸ However, this economic imperative often appears to overshadow environmental compliance. Observations indicate that many factories, even those with installed treatment facilities, frequently do not operate their ETPs to reduce costs. The fines imposed for non-compliance are, in many instances, considerably lower than the ongoing operational expenses of these treatment plants, creating a financial disincentive for proper environmental stewardship.⁸ This situation highlights a systemic tension where immediate economic gains are prioritized over environmental protection, leading to a decline in water quality. Achieving sustainable development in Bangladesh requires a re-evaluation of these economic incentives and a strengthening of regulatory enforcement to ensure that industrial growth and environmental health are mutually reinforcing, rather than conflicting, objectives.

1.2 Defining Environmental Solutions: ETP, STP, and WTP

To address the multifaceted water challenges, Bangladesh relies on three primary types of water treatment plants, each with distinct functions and objectives:

• Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP): An ETP is specifically designed to treat industrial wastewater, often referred to as effluent, before it is discharged into the environment or reused. Its main purpose is to remove contaminants and pollutants, such as heavy metals, dyes, organic chemicals, and suspended solids, generated by various industrial operations. ETPs ensure that the discharged water complies with environmental regulations, thereby minimizing its impact on surrounding ecosystems and public health.¹ The treatment processes employed by ETPs typically involve a combination of physical (e.g., sedimentation, filtration), chemical (e.g., coagulation, flocculation, pH adjustment), and biological methods (e.g., activated sludge process, anaerobic digestion).³
• Sewage Treatment Plant (STP): An STP is dedicated to treating domestic and municipal wastewater, commonly known as sewage, which originates from homes, businesses, schools, and offices. The primary goal of an STP is to remove human waste, harmful germs, organic matter, and other contaminants from this wastewater, making it safe for release into natural water bodies or for potential reuse. This process is crucial for protecting public health and preventing the pollution of rivers, lakes, and groundwater.¹ STPs predominantly utilize biological processes, such as activated sludge treatment and anaerobic digestion, to break down organic pollutants.²⁸
• Water Treatment Plant (WTP): A WTP’s core responsibility is to purify raw water sourced from natural bodies like rivers, lakes, or groundwater, transforming it into clean and potable drinking water for communities or for various industrial uses.¹ WTPs ensure access to safe water for consumption and other purposes. The purification processes in WTPs typically involve a sequence of physical (e.g., coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration), chemical (e.g., chlorination, ozonation, pH adjustment), and sometimes biological methods to remove impurities, pathogens, and undesirable substances.⁴

While ETPs, STPs, and WTPs serve distinct purposes with different inputs and outputs, their functions are deeply interconnected within the broader water cycle. For instance, the pollution of rivers by untreated industrial effluent (a failure of ETPs) and municipal sewage (a failure of STPs) directly compromises the quality of raw water available for WTPs.²³ Conversely, the effective operation of ETPs and STPs contributes significantly to cleaner natural water bodies, which in turn reduces the treatment burden on WTPs and enhances overall water security. This intricate relationship underscores that a fragmented approach to water management, treating these three types of plants in isolation, is insufficient. Any breakdown in one segment can cascade into challenges for the others. Therefore, an integrated strategy encompassing policy planning, infrastructure development, and investment across all three categories is essential for achieving comprehensive environmental and public health benefits in Bangladesh.

Table 1: Key Differences between ETP, STP, and WTP

Feature	Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)	Sewage Treatment Plant (STP)	Water Treatment Plant (WTP)
Purpose	Treats industrial wastewater to prevent industrial pollution.	Purifies domestic and municipal sewage to protect public health and the environment.	Provides clean and potable drinking water for public consumption and industrial use.
Primary Input	Industrial wastewater/effluent (e.g., from textiles, pharmaceuticals, tanneries, chemicals, food processing).	Domestic and municipal wastewater (sewage) from homes, businesses, schools, offices.	Raw water from natural sources (rivers, lakes, groundwater).
Key Treatment Processes	Chemical coagulation, biological treatment, advanced filtration, sedimentation, dissolved air flotation.	Biological processes (activated sludge, anaerobic digestion), physical (screens, settling tanks), chemical (disinfection).	Physical (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration), chemical (chlorination, ozonation, pH adjustment), biological.
Primary Output	Treated effluents safe for environmental discharge or reuse.	Treated sewage suitable for release into natural water bodies or reuse.	Clean and safe drinking water.
Environmental Impact/Objective	Removes harmful pollutants, prevents contamination of natural water bodies, minimizes environmental impact, enables water recycling.	Removes harmful chemicals, waste, and bacteria, protects water sources, prevents algae blooms, reduces waterborne diseases.	Purifies raw water for safe consumption, ensures access to clean water, reduces risk of waterborne illnesses.
Key Pollutants Addressed	Dyes, heavy metals, oils, toxic chemicals, organic matter, suspended solids.	Human waste, harmful germs, organic matter, nutrients.	Pathogens, suspended solids, dissolved minerals, heavy metals, organic compounds (from raw water).
Regulatory Focus	Compliance with industrial discharge limits.	Compliance with municipal sewage discharge standards.	Compliance with drinking water quality standards.
Typical Ownership	Industries (often co-managed with municipalities for larger facilities).	Municipalities, public utilities.	Public utilities, government agencies, private operators.
Reuse Potential	High, for industrial processes or irrigation.	Moderate, for farming, industry, or non-potable uses.	Direct potable use.
Key Challenges	Inconsistent effluent quality, high costs, lack of skilled personnel, weak enforcement.	Inadequate infrastructure, limited capacity, emerging pollutants, coordination gaps.	Arsenic/salinity contamination, groundwater depletion, ensuring “safely managed” access.

2. Regulatory Landscape and Compliance Framework

2.1 Key Environmental Legislation: Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA) and Environment Conservation Rules (ECR)

The cornerstone of environmental governance in Bangladesh is the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA) of 1995. This foundational legislation was enacted with the overarching goals of safeguarding and conserving the environment, improving environmental standards, and controlling and mitigating environmental pollution across the nation.⁵ BECA provides operational definitions for critical environmental terms, including ecosystem, pollution, waste, and hazardous substances, laying the groundwork for a structured approach to environmental management.

Following the enactment of BECA, the Department of Environment (DoE) was established. The Director General, who heads the DoE, is vested with significant powers to formulate rules and measures deemed necessary for environmental conservation and improvement. This includes the authority to prevent accidents that could damage the environment, direct clean-up operations following environmental disasters, and issue regulations concerning the use, storage, transportation, import, and export of hazardous materials.⁵

To operationalize the principles and mandates of BECA, the government promulgated the Environment Conservation Rules (ECR). The ECR 1997 provided detailed guidelines for environmental protection, and it was subsequently updated by the ECR 2023, which replaced the earlier version.⁶ These rules outline specific procedures for environmental management, including the classification of industries and projects based on their environmental impact, and requirements for obtaining environmental clearances.

Despite the existence of a robust legal framework, a significant challenge persists in the effective implementation of these laws. Numerous reports consistently highlight weak enforcement of environmental regulations by government authorities.⁴ The Department of Environment, despite its mandate, has reportedly struggled to effectively govern instances of non-compliance.⁸ This is evidenced by observations that industries often bypass their ETPs or operate them only during inspections, indicating that the legal requirements are not consistently met in practice.¹⁰ This persistent gap between the comprehensive laws on paper and their actual application in the field points to underlying institutional and governance issues that hinder the achievement of environmental protection goals.

2.2 Roles of the Department of Environment (DoE) and Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI)

The Department of Environment (DoE) stands as the principal regulatory authority responsible for environmental governance in Bangladesh. Its mandate encompasses setting and enforcing environmental regulations, including the crucial requirement for industries to install and operate Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs). The DoE is also responsible for granting environmental clearances and continuously monitoring compliance across various sectors.³ A key function of the DoE involves classifying industrial establishments and projects into four categories: Green, Yellow, Orange-A, Orange-B, and Red. This categorization is based on their potential environmental impact. Industries falling into the Red category, such as textile dyeing, chemical, pharmaceutical, and tannery sectors, are deemed to have a severe impact and thus face the most stringent clearance procedures, including mandatory Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and Environmental Management Plans (EMPs).⁶

Complementing the DoE’s role, the Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI) serves as the national standards body. BSTI is tasked with formulating Bangladesh Standards (BDS) and ensuring the quality of products through rigorous testing and certification processes. This includes a vital role in upholding drinking water quality standards, ensuring that water supplied to the public meets established safety benchmarks.⁴

Despite the clear delineation of responsibilities and the broad mandates of these regulatory bodies, a significant challenge lies in their operational capacity. The DoE, in particular, is tasked with monitoring thousands of industrial facilities and enforcing a complex web of environmental regulations.¹⁰ However, available information consistently points to insufficient resources, including a shortage of knowledgeable and skilled human resources, and inadequate funding.⁸ This limitation in capacity directly impacts the DoE’s ability to properly monitor ETPs and ensure continuous compliance.¹⁰ For example, the low rate of IP camera installation and the challenges in monitoring the footage from such a large number of cameras further highlight this constraint.¹⁰ This situation indicates that even with well-intentioned policies and strong legal frameworks, without adequate investment in the human capital, technology, and operational budgets of regulatory bodies, effective compliance will remain elusive, and environmental degradation will persist.

2.3 Discharge Standards and Quality Parameters

Bangladesh has established specific standards for both drinking water quality and the discharge of industrial effluents and sewage, reflecting its commitment to environmental protection and public health.

Bangladesh Drinking Water Quality Standards: These standards, set by the Department of Environment (DoE) and the Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI), cover a wide array of parameters to ensure the potability and safety of drinking water. Key parameters include pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Iron, Arsenic, Salinity, Fluoride, Chloride, Coliform bacteria, and various heavy metals.⁴ For instance, the maximum permissible level for Arsenic is set at 0.05 mg/l, and for Total Coliform, it is 0 N/100ml.⁴³ These benchmarks are critical for Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) to achieve in their purification processes.

Table 2: Bangladesh Drinking Water Quality Standards

Parameter	Unit	Bangladesh Standard	WHO Guideline Values
Aluminum	mg/l	0.2	0.2
Ammonia (NH3)	mg/l	0.5	–
Arsenic	mg/l	0.05	0.05
Barium	mg/l	0.01	–
BOD5 20°C	mg/l	0.2	–
Cadmium	mg/l	0.005	0.005
Calcium	mg/l	75	–
Chloride	mg/l	150-600*	250
Chlorine (Residual)	mg/l	0.2	–
Chromium (Total)	mg/l	0.05	0.05
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)	mg/l	4	–
Coliform (Faecal)	N/100ml	0	0
Coliform (Total)	N/100ml	0**	0
Colour	Hazen Unit	15	15
Copper	mg/l	1	1
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)	mg/l	6	–
Fluoride	mg/l	1	1.5
Hardness (as CaCO3)	mg/l	200-500	500
Iron	mg/l	0.3-1.0	0.3
Lead	mg/l	0.05	0.05
Magnesium	mg/l	30	–
Manganese	mg/l	0.1	0.1
Nitrate	mg/l	10	50
Nitrite	mg/l	<1	–
Odour	mg/l	Odourless	–
Oil and Grease	mg/l	0.01	–
pH	–	6.5-8.5	6.5-8.5
Radioactive Substances:
Total Alfa Radiation	Bq/l	0.01	–
Total Beta Radiation	Bq/l	0.1	–
Sodium	mg/l	200	–
Suspended Solids	mg/l	10	–
Sulphide	mg/l	0	–
Sulphate	mg/l	400	–
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)	mg/l	1000	–
Temperature	°C	20-30	–
Turbidity	JTU	10	5
Zinc	mg/l	5	5
*1000 for coastal areas of Bangladesh. **3 in occasional but not consecutive samples, 10 for unpiped water supply but should not occur repeatedly. 43

Industrial Effluent and Sewage Discharge Standards (ECR 1997, Schedule 9 & 10): These standards, outlined in the Environment Conservation Rules (ECR) 1997, specify limits for various pollutants in industrial wastewater and sewage. The permissible levels vary depending on the intended discharge location, such as inland surface water, public sewerage systems connected to secondary treatment, or irrigated land.⁴⁴ For sewage, additional requirements include chlorination before final discharge.⁴⁴

Table 3: Select Industrial Effluent and Sewage Discharge Standards (ECR 1997, Schedule 9 & 10)

Parameter	Unit	Inland Surface Water	Public Sewerage System	Irrigated Land	Sewage Discharge Standards (Schedule 9)
Ammonical Nitrogen (as N)	mg/l	50	75	75	–
Ammonia (as free ammonia)	mg/l	5	5	15	–
Arsenic (as)	mg/l	0.2	0.05	0.2	–
BOD5 at 20°C	mg/l	50	250	100	40 mg/l
Boron	mg/l	2	2	2	–
Cadmium (as CD)	mg/l	0.50	0.05	0.05	–
Chloride	mg/l	600	600	600	–
Chromium (as total Cr)	mg/l	0.5	1.0	1.0	–
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)	mg/l	200	400	400	–
Chromium (as hexavalent Cr)	mg/l	0.1	1.0	1.0	–
Copper (as Cu)	mg/l	0.5	3.0	3.0	–
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)	–	4.5 – 8	4.5 – 8	4.5 – 8	–
Electro-conductivity (EC)	micro mho/cm	1200	1200	1200	–
Total Dissolved Solids	–	2,100	2,100	2,100	–
Fluoride (as F)	mg/l	2	15	10	–
Sulfide (as S)	mg/l	1	2	2	–
Iron (as Fe)	mg/l	2	2	2	–
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (as N)	mg/l	100	100	100	–
Lead (as Pb)	mg/l	0.1	1.0	0.1	–
Manganese (as Mn)	mg/l	5	5	5	–
Mercury (as Hg)	mg/l	0.01	0.01	0.01	–
Nickel (as Ni)	mg/l	1.0	2.0	1.0	–
Nitrate (as N)	mg/l	10.0	Not yet Fixed	10	250 mg/l
Oil and Grease	mg/l	10	20	10	–
Phenolic Compounds (as C6H5OH)	mg/l	1.0	5	1	–
Dissolved Phosphorus (as P)	mg/l	8	8	15	35 mg/l
pH	–	6 – 9	6 – 9	6 – 9	–
Selenium (as Se)	mg/l	0.05	0.05	0.05	–
Zinc (as Zn)	–	5	10	10	–
Temperature	°C	40 (Summer), 45 (Winter)	40 (Summer), 45 (Winter)	40 (Summer), 45 (Winter)	30 °C
Suspended Solids (SS)	mg/l	150	500	200	100 mg/l
Cyanide (as Cn)	mg/l	0.1	2.0	0.2	–
Coliform	No./100 ml	–	–	–	1000 No./100 ml
Radioactive substance	–	To be specified by Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission	–	–	–
44

Despite the existence of clearly defined drinking water and effluent discharge standards, studies consistently reveal that actual river water quality often falls short of these benchmarks. Rivers around major urban centers frequently exhibit high levels of pollutants, low dissolved oxygen, and elevated Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).²³ This widespread deviation from established standards indicates that the current regulatory and enforcement mechanisms are insufficient to ensure adherence. The consequence is that the “paper standards” are not translating into tangible improvements in real-world water quality, leading to ongoing environmental and public health crises. This situation necessitates a strategic shift from merely setting standards to ensuring their effective monitoring and rigorous enforcement, potentially through the implementation of real-time monitoring systems and the imposition of penalties that are sufficiently deterrent to outweigh the costs of non-compliance.

2.4 Environmental Clearance Procedures and Industry Categorization

In Bangladesh, obtaining an Environmental Clearance Certificate (ECC) from the Department of Environment (DoE) is a mandatory prerequisite for establishing or undertaking any industrial unit or project.³⁴ This certificate ensures that the proposed industry or project adheres to the prescribed environmental standards set by the government, covering aspects such as air, water, noise, and odor quality.³⁴

Industries are systematically categorized based on their potential environmental impact, a classification critical for determining the stringency of the clearance process. These categories include Green, Orange-A, Orange-B, and Red.⁶ Industries classified under the Red category, which notably include textile dyeing, chemical, pharmaceutical, and tannery sectors, are recognized as having the most severe environmental impact and are therefore subjected to the most rigorous procedures. For these industries, the clearance process typically involves submitting a feasibility report, conducting an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), preparing a detailed Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report, and developing a comprehensive Environmental Management Plan (EMP).³³

For projects falling into the Orange-B and Red categories, a Location Clearance Certificate is usually required as an initial step before the full ECC can be issued.³³ Furthermore, ECCs are not permanent; they require periodic renewal, often annually for Red category industries and every three years for Green category projects, ensuring ongoing compliance.³⁶

While this detailed categorization and clearance procedure signifies a structured regulatory intent, the persistent reports of non-compliance and the ineffectiveness of many existing ETPs suggest that these comprehensive procedures, despite their robustness on paper, may not be consistently translating into desired environmental outcomes. Practical barriers, such as the high import tax on ETPs and their limited availability in local markets, further complicate compliance efforts for industries.⁸ This situation indicates that the complexity and cost associated with regulatory compliance, when coupled with weak enforcement, might inadvertently incentivize non-compliance rather than genuinely fostering environmental stewardship. Therefore, the regulatory framework needs to be not only robust but also pragmatic, potentially by streamlining processes, offering targeted incentives for compliance, and rigorously penalizing non-compliance to ensure that the “permission to operate” genuinely translates into “responsible operation” and tangible environmental improvements.

3. Current Status of Implementation and Coverage

3.1 Industrial Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs): Status, Key Industries, and Pollutants Treated

Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) are indispensable for various industrial sectors in Bangladesh, including textiles, pharmaceuticals, tanneries, food processing, and chemical manufacturing. These industries generate substantial volumes of wastewater laden with diverse pollutants such as dyes, heavy metals (e.g., chromium, lead), organic compounds, suspended solids, and other toxic chemicals.³ ETPs are designed to remove these contaminants before discharge or reuse, ensuring adherence to environmental regulations.

Despite clear regulatory mandates for ETP installation and operation, compliance remains a significant challenge across many industrial sectors in Bangladesh.³⁵ Reports indicate a pervasive issue where a large proportion of factories, estimated at around 80% in some assessments, either do not possess active ETPs or intentionally bypass them to reduce operational costs. These facilities are often only activated during official inspections, circumventing continuous treatment.⁸ As of June 2022, out of approximately 10,000 factories legally required to have ETPs, only 2,312 had installed them. Even among those with ETPs, a mere 500 had implemented IP cameras for remote monitoring, despite directives from the Department of Environment (DoE).¹⁰

Furthermore, studies reveal that even when ETPs are operational, their effectiveness in removing certain pollutants, particularly emerging contaminants like microplastics, can be limited. For instance, research indicates that ETPs in Bangladesh remove only about 62% of microplastics, meaning a substantial 38% continues to be released into the environment and, ultimately, the food chain.¹¹ While the textile sector, a major polluter, has shown some progress with 178 factories achieving LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certificates, the overall efficacy of ETPs across the industry remains a pressing concern.¹²

The significant gap between the installation of ETPs and their consistent, effective operation highlights a critical failure in the enforcement mechanism. The mere presence of an ETP on paper does not translate into actual environmental protection. This situation is exacerbated by the DoE’s limited manpower for monitoring ¹⁰ and the economic reality that, for many industries, the fines for non-compliance are less than the costs associated with continuously running their ETPs.⁸ This creates an economic disincentive for proper treatment. Consequently, policy efforts must shift from simply mandating installation to ensuring continuous and effective operation. This requires implementing robust, real-time monitoring systems, imposing penalties that genuinely deter non-compliance, and potentially offering incentives for operational efficiency rather than just initial setup.

3.2 Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs): Coverage, Capacity, and Urban Challenges (e.g., Dhaka)

Bangladesh faces substantial challenges in managing municipal wastewater, characterized by inadequate infrastructure and a general lack of public awareness regarding wastewater management practices.⁴ The situation is particularly acute in rapidly urbanizing areas, with Dhaka serving as a prime example of the municipal wastewater crisis.

In Dhaka, the existing Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) possess a severely limited capacity, capable of treating only 30% of the total sewage generated daily.¹¹ The city’s ambitious plan to establish five separate treatment plants at key river discharge points has largely faltered, with not a single one of them reported as fully functional.¹¹ Furthermore, the storm sewers, which are intended to convey wastewater to these STPs, are frequently damaged or sealed, resulting in the direct discharge of untreated sewage into urban water bodies.¹¹

This widespread discharge of untreated wastewater leads to alarming levels of contamination in Dhaka’s urban rivers and lakes. Studies have detected the presence of “emerging pollutants” (EPs) such as antibiotics, microplastics, detergents, toothpastes, and lotions, which conventional STPs are largely inefficient at removing.¹¹ This, coupled with significant bacterial contamination (including coliform and E. coli), contributes directly to a rise in waterborne diseases among city residents.¹¹ A notable impediment to effective sewage management is the considerable coordination gap observed between the Dhaka City Corporation and the Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA).¹¹ Nationally, the statistics on wastewater treatment paint a stark picture: as of 2022, only 18% of domestic wastewater in Bangladesh was safely treated.¹³

The inadequate and often non-functional municipal wastewater infrastructure in Dhaka highlights a critical issue: urban development has significantly outpaced the provision of essential sanitation services. This imbalance creates a severe public health and environmental crisis in urban centers, leading to widespread health issues and the ecological degradation of urban water bodies. The presence of emerging pollutants further complicates the treatment requirements, demanding more sophisticated solutions. However, there are instances of success that offer a blueprint for future interventions. The Dasherkandi Sewerage Treatment Plant (DSTP), for example, stands as South Asia’s largest individual wastewater treatment plant. Operational since July 2023, this project can treat domestic sewage for nearly 5 million people daily, demonstrating a significant reduction in water pollution in downtown Dhaka and a marked improvement in river water quality.²¹ This success underscores that effective, large-scale municipal wastewater treatment is achievable in Bangladesh and provides a crucial model for scaling up similar projects to address the pervasive infrastructure deficit.

3.3 Drinking Water Treatment Plants (WTPs): Access, Quality, and Supply Challenges

Bangladesh has achieved commendable progress in expanding access to “improved” drinking water sources, reaching approximately 98.5% of the population in 2019.⁴⁸ However, a closer examination reveals a substantial disparity when considering access to “safely managed” drinking water services. This figure was considerably lower, at 42.6% in 2019 ⁴⁸ and 59% in 2022.¹³ This disparity indicates that while many people have access to a water source, the quality and safety of that water are not consistently assured.

The primary challenges impacting drinking water quality and supply include widespread arsenic contamination, which affects an estimated 11.8% of the population with levels exceeding national standards.⁴⁸ Salinity intrusion, particularly in coastal areas, further compromises freshwater sources.⁴ Microbial contamination also remains a persistent concern.⁴⁸ In Dhaka, approximately 82% of the city’s water supply is extracted from groundwater, a resource that is being severely depleted at an alarming rate of 2-3 meters annually and is increasingly susceptible to contamination.⁵² Surface water sources, which could serve as alternatives, are themselves heavily polluted by industrial and municipal discharges.²³

Recognizing the unsustainable reliance on groundwater, the government has articulated a strategic objective to gradually shift towards greater utilization of surface water for drinking water production.⁵⁴ Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) play a crucial role in this transition. For instance, the Saidabad Water Treatment Plant, designed by SUEZ, has a daily capacity of 450,000 m3/d and has been operational since 2012. It employs innovative double-stage pretreatment, clarification, filtration, and chlorination processes to purify water from the Shitalakshya river, even when raw water properties fluctuate significantly.³² This plant aims to provide clean drinking water for 7 million people.⁵⁴

The significant difference between the high percentage of “improved water source access” and the considerably lower percentage for “safely managed drinking water” reveals a critical water supply dilemma. This situation indicates that simply providing access to a water point does not guarantee water safety, leading to ongoing public health risks from contaminated water. This issue is further compounded by specific contaminants like arsenic, salinity, and microbial agents. Therefore, future investments and policies must prioritize water quality and safety alongside access. This requires focusing on robust treatment processes, comprehensive monitoring, and addressing source contamination through effective Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) to truly achieve the Sustainable Development Goal 6 targets for clean water and sanitation.

4. Challenges in Design, Installation, Operation, and Maintenance

4.1 Infrastructure Gaps and Technological Limitations

A significant challenge confronting water treatment efforts in Bangladesh is the pervasive issue of inadequate and outdated infrastructure. Many existing Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) were constructed years ago and do not meet modern standards, frequently lacking the necessary advanced technology for efficient wastewater treatment.¹⁵ Upgrading this aging infrastructure requires substantial investment, which is often unavailable or poorly managed, leading to suboptimal treatment outcomes.¹⁵

The reliance on traditional, less effective treatment methods persists largely due to cost considerations, which in turn limits the overall treatment capabilities, particularly for complex and emerging pollutants.¹⁵ Furthermore, space constraints in densely populated urban and industrial areas pose a practical impediment to the installation of new or expanded treatment facilities, making it difficult to implement larger, more comprehensive systems.³⁵

This situation illustrates a self-perpetuating cycle where insufficient investment leads to decaying infrastructure and outdated technology, which then results in poor performance. This poor performance, in turn, makes it challenging to secure further funding or public support for necessary upgrades. Breaking this cycle necessitates a strategic, long-term investment plan, potentially leveraging innovative financing models such as Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs), to modernize infrastructure and adopt advanced treatment technologies.

4.2 Skilled Manpower Shortages and Training Needs

Even with improvements in infrastructure and technology, a critical bottleneck in Bangladesh’s water treatment sector is the severe shortage of skilled personnel required to operate and maintain Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs). Wastewater treatment is a complex field demanding specialized knowledge and expertise in chemical, biological, and mechanical processes.¹⁵ Unfortunately, this expertise is often lacking, leading to suboptimal operation and maintenance of existing systems.¹⁵

The challenges extend to recruiting and retaining qualified professionals in the sector. There is also a notable absence of comprehensive documentation and structured training programs necessary to effectively transfer operational knowledge to newer staff, perpetuating the skill gap.⁵⁸ This situation indicates that human capital is a critical limiting factor in the effectiveness of water treatment facilities. Without adequately trained and experienced operators, even well-designed and technologically advanced plants will fail to perform optimally.⁵⁷ Therefore, investment in physical infrastructure and technology must be coupled with significant investment in human resource development. This includes establishing vocational training programs, specialized environmental engineering curricula, and creating attractive career pathways to draw and retain skilled professionals in the water sector.

4.3 Financial Constraints and Investment Barriers

Financial limitations represent a substantial barrier to the effective functioning and expansion of water treatment infrastructure in Bangladesh. Many existing plants operate on restricted budgets, which severely curtails their ability to upgrade technology, perform essential equipment maintenance, or invest in necessary staff training.¹⁵ The absence of a sustainable and robust financing model further discourages much-needed investment in the wastewater treatment sector.¹⁵

The high initial investment costs associated with establishing new ETPs and WTPs pose a significant hurdle, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that may lack the capital for such large-scale projects.² Compounding this issue is the high import tax levied on ETP equipment, which was, for instance, 26.27% of the buying price in the country of origin in fiscal year 2017–2018, in addition to other associated costs. This is exacerbated by the fact that ETPs are largely unavailable in local markets, forcing industries to rely on expensive imports.⁸ Furthermore, Bangladesh’s impending graduation from Least Developed Country (LDC) status is projected to lead to a decline in donor funding, intensifying the need for alternative financial support mechanisms.⁵¹

The financial landscape inadvertently encourages non-compliance, as the high cost of compliance, including import taxes and operational expenses, often outweighs the relatively lower fines imposed for environmental violations.⁸ This creates an economic disincentive for industries to invest in and consistently operate proper treatment facilities. Therefore, financial mechanisms need to be fundamentally redesigned to make compliance more economically attractive than non-compliance. This could involve targeted subsidies, tax incentives for adopting green technologies, establishing accessible financing schemes, and a critical review of import duties on essential treatment equipment, alongside stricter and more punitive enforcement where non-compliance costs significantly outweigh the benefits.

4.4 Enforcement Weaknesses and Compliance Issues

Despite the existence of a comprehensive regulatory framework, weak enforcement of environmental regulations remains a critical challenge in Bangladesh’s water treatment sector. This lax oversight frequently allows many industries to discharge untreated or inadequately treated effluent into the environment.⁸ Inconsistent monitoring by regulatory agencies undermines compliance efforts, leading to a situation where some industries prioritize cost-cutting measures over environmental protection.³⁵

The problem is further exacerbated by a lack of coordination among various government agencies involved in environmental management, particularly in the complex domain of municipal wastewater management.¹¹ This fragmented approach can lead to overlapping responsibilities, gaps in oversight, and reduced accountability. The presence of regulations, when coupled with weak enforcement, creates a “regulatory loophole” where industries perceive a low risk of facing significant consequences for non-compliance. This perception contributes to a low willingness among companies to consistently adhere to environmental requirements.⁸ The absence of effective monitoring tools, such as widespread and actively supervised IP cameras in ETPs, further enables this behavior.¹⁰

This situation indicates that the regulatory system, despite its design, is not effectively deterring pollution. Strengthening enforcement is not merely about increasing fines, but also about significantly improving monitoring capabilities, increasing the frequency and unpredictability of inspections, and fostering robust inter-agency coordination. These measures are essential to close existing loopholes and ensure genuine accountability across all industrial and municipal entities.

4.5 Inconsistent Raw Effluent Quality and Emerging Pollutants

A significant operational challenge for Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) in Bangladesh is the highly inconsistent quality of raw effluent discharged by various industries. This variability in pollutant loads and concentrations makes it difficult for ETPs to maintain consistent treatment processes and reliably meet discharge standards.¹⁵ Fluctuations in the composition of wastewater, often due to changes in production levels, raw material inputs, or seasonal variations, can lead to underperformance of treatment systems designed for more stable conditions.¹⁵

Compounding this challenge is the growing concern over “emerging pollutants” (EPs). Recent studies have detected alarming levels of substances like antibiotics, microplastics, detergents, and personal care products in urban rivers and lakes in Bangladesh.¹¹ These emerging contaminants pose new and complex treatment challenges because conventional STPs and ETPs are largely inefficient at removing them.¹¹ For instance, conventional ETPs imported from countries like India and China have been found to be inefficient in treating microplastics.¹¹

The presence of these new contaminants, alongside the traditional pollutants, indicates an evolving and increasingly complex pollution landscape. This means that simply installing basic ETPs and STPs, even if fully operational, may no longer be sufficient to address the full spectrum of water quality issues. There is an urgent need for increased research into and adoption of advanced treatment technologies specifically designed to target these emerging pollutants. Furthermore, proactive source reduction strategies are crucial to prevent these contaminants from entering the wastewater stream in the first place, thereby reducing the burden on end-of-pipe treatment solutions.

Table 4: Key Challenges in Water Treatment in Bangladesh

Challenge Category	Specific Challenge	Explanation/Impact
Infrastructure	Inadequate and Outdated Infrastructure	Many existing plants are old, lack modern technology, and require significant investment for upgrades, leading to suboptimal treatment outcomes. Space constraints in urban areas further limit expansion. 15
Human Capital	Lack of Skilled Personnel	Critical shortage of trained operators and maintenance staff with specialized knowledge, resulting in inefficient operation and maintenance of complex treatment systems. 15
Financial	Funding and Financial Constraints	Limited budgets hinder technology upgrades, equipment maintenance, and training. High initial investment costs, high import taxes on ETPs, and limited local availability of equipment act as significant barriers, especially for SMEs. 2
Regulatory	Weak Enforcement and Inconsistent Oversight	Despite existing regulations, weak enforcement allows industries to bypass treatment or operate inefficiently. Inconsistent monitoring and inadequate penalties undermine compliance efforts, leading to continued pollution. 8
Technical	Inconsistent Raw Effluent Quality	Significant variations in pollutant loads and concentrations from different industries complicate consistent treatment processes, leading to underperformance and difficulty in meeting discharge standards. 15
Emerging Pollutants	Ineffective Treatment of New Contaminants	Conventional ETPs and STPs are inefficient at removing emerging pollutants like microplastics, antibiotics, and personal care products, which are increasingly found in water bodies and pose new environmental and health risks. 11
Governance	Lack of Inter-Agency Coordination	Poor coordination between government bodies (e.g., city corporations and WASAs) exacerbates challenges in municipal wastewater management, leading to fragmented efforts and inefficiencies. 11
Public Awareness	Low Public Awareness and Participation	Limited public understanding of the importance of wastewater treatment and ETPs can lead to resistance to projects or insufficient community involvement. 4

5. Opportunities, Emerging Technologies, and Future Trends

5.1 Advanced Treatment Technologies

The landscape of water treatment in Bangladesh is poised for significant advancements through the adoption of cutting-edge technologies. These innovations offer promising pathways to overcome existing limitations and achieve higher treatment standards, including addressing the challenge of emerging pollutants and moving towards circular economy principles.

• Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs): MBR technology integrates biological treatment with advanced membrane filtration, offering superior water quality and a significantly reduced physical footprint compared to conventional systems.¹⁶ MBRs demonstrate high removal efficiencies for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and color, and can effectively handle fluctuations in influent quality.⁶¹ This technology is particularly suitable for producing high-purity treated water, often serving as a direct precursor to Reverse Osmosis (RO) systems for water recycling.⁶¹ Veolia’s implementation of Bangladesh’s first MBR-based ETP in the textile industry serves as a successful case study, showcasing its potential to meet stringent discharge guidelines like Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC).⁶²
• Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs): AOPs leverage powerful oxidants such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and UV light to effectively destroy recalcitrant organic compounds and toxic substances that are difficult to remove by conventional methods.¹⁶ These processes are especially valuable for treating complex industrial effluents containing highly toxic substances.
• Biogas Recovery: Modern ETPs and STPs are increasingly incorporating anaerobic digestion, a process that breaks down organic matter to produce methane gas. This biogas can be captured and utilized as a renewable energy source, significantly reducing the plant’s operational costs and its reliance on external power grids.¹⁶ This approach not only enhances energy efficiency but also contributes to a more sustainable treatment process.
• Smart Water Systems: The integration of new technologies enables instant monitoring of water quality parameters. This real-time data allows for faster and more effective adjustments to treatment processes, optimizing efficiency and ensuring consistent compliance with discharge standards.¹⁶
• Johkasou STP Technology: These compact, single-tank wastewater treatment solutions are designed for efficient sewage handling, particularly suitable for decentralized wastewater management. Johkasou systems can treat both blackwater (from toilets) and graywater (from kitchens, bathrooms, and laundry) from various sources, including homes, schools, offices, and industries, offering a flexible solution for areas without centralized sewerage networks.¹⁶

The adoption of these advanced technologies represents a critical pathway for Bangladesh to overcome existing water treatment limitations and achieve higher environmental standards. These innovations facilitate a move towards a circular economy by enabling greater resource recovery and reuse. Strategic investment in research and development, technology transfer, and incentives for the adoption of these advanced systems are crucial for Bangladesh to leapfrog conventional, less efficient methods and establish a truly sustainable water management system.

5.2 Water Recycling and Reuse Initiatives

A fundamental shift in water management philosophy is gaining traction in Bangladesh, moving beyond traditional “waste disposal” to a more holistic “resource recovery” approach. This paradigm shift aims to maximize the value extracted from water resources, addressing both scarcity and pollution.

The Department of Environment (DoE) is actively promoting a “3R strategy” (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) and Zero Discharge (ZD) or Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) plans, particularly for water-intensive industries like textiles. The objective is to achieve nearly 100% recycling and reuse of treated wastewater within industrial processes.⁶⁵ Water reuse offers a cost-effective solution for industries, enhancing operational resilience and reducing regulatory pressures. Treated river water, once adequately purified, can support various industrial needs such as textile production, cooling systems, and even agricultural irrigation, thereby alleviating pressure on dwindling groundwater resources.¹⁸

Several specific initiatives are gaining prominence:

• Rainwater Harvesting: Bangladesh receives abundant rainfall, especially during the monsoon season, much of which traditionally flows away unused. Rainwater harvesting presents a cost-effective and climate-friendly solution to the country’s growing water stress.¹⁸ For industries, collecting rainwater from rooftops and paved surfaces can provide water for cooling towers, dyeing processes, and cleaning operations, reducing reliance on groundwater and lowering production costs. In residential settings, rainwater harvesting systems can supply water for washing, toilet flushing, gardening, and, with appropriate filtration, even drinking, proving particularly valuable in areas with limited or unreliable piped water supply.¹⁸
• Water Salinity Conversion: Climate change is intensifying the salinity of coastal water sources in districts like Khulna, Satkhira, and Bagerhat, posing a severe threat to agriculture and drinking water supplies. Research is underway to develop low-cost saline water conversion technologies that do not require expensive infrastructure. Promising approaches include solar-powered reverse osmosis (RO) systems, pond sand filters, and membrane distillation. Startups and NGOs are piloting small-scale, low-maintenance, and off-grid desalination units, which hold the potential to provide clean water to millions if scaled up.¹⁸
• Turning Floods into Fields (Storing Monsoon Water): Instead of allowing excess monsoon floodwaters to flow unused into the sea, strategic redirection and storage can address water scarcity during dry months, particularly for agriculture. Controlled diversion and storage through canals, retention ponds, or underground reservoirs can recharge groundwater and provide irrigation during the winter season, enhancing food security. This stored water can support additional crop cultivation, improve soil moisture, and reduce reliance on energy-intensive deep tube wells that contribute to groundwater depletion.¹⁸

These strategies collectively represent a transformative approach to water management. They not only address pollution and scarcity but also offer significant economic benefits through cost savings and the potential for new industries. Furthermore, they enhance climate resilience, making them crucial for Bangladesh’s long-term sustainable development.

5.3 Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) and Investment Opportunities

Recognizing the substantial financial constraints and the sheer scale of the infrastructure gap in water management, Bangladesh is increasingly turning to Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) as a key mechanism to mobilize investment and expertise. PPPs are identified as a critical initiative to bridge the country’s infrastructure deficit and increase investments in the water sector.⁶⁶

The 2030 Water Resources Group (WRG) is actively supporting Bangladesh’s Delta Plan 2100 by focusing on water pollution management through robust private sector engagement.¹⁹ WRG aims to mobilize significant financial resources, targeting $450 million in public and $100 million in private finance for wastewater management by 2025. This funding is intended to expand wastewater services for 3.5 million people and treat over 25 million cubic meters of wastewater through Central Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) and Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs).¹⁹ WRG is also instrumental in developing Bangladesh’s first replicable PPP model for municipal wastewater management, with initial implementation in Gazipur City Corporation, the country’s largest city without a wastewater facility.¹⁹ Similar initiatives are being explored for economic zones to develop hybrid annuity PPP models for centralized effluent treatment.¹⁹

Beyond direct PPPs, various opportunities exist for financing water treatment plants. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) mandates, for instance, require certain companies to allocate a percentage of their net profits to CSR activities. A 2022 guideline from Bangladesh Bank specifically mandates that 20% of these CSR funds be directed towards climate change and mitigation efforts, including pure drinking water programs in climate-vulnerable areas.⁵¹ Additionally, refinancing schemes, which involve concessionary loans from Bangladesh Bank to financial institutions for investments in the water sector, and credit guarantee schemes, which reduce investment risk for banks, are being explored to attract private capital.⁵¹ Investment opportunities also extend to water treatment businesses, including sales partnerships and franchises, indicating a growing commercial interest in the sector.²⁰

The emphasis on PPPs and blended finance models acknowledges that public funding alone is insufficient to address the vast water infrastructure needs. This strategic shift towards leveraging diverse financial instruments and multi-stakeholder collaborations is crucial to accelerate progress. The broader implication is that effective water management in Bangladesh will increasingly depend on innovative financing mechanisms that de-risk private investment, coupled with strong governance frameworks that ensure equitable access and sustainable outcomes, moving beyond traditional public-sector-only approaches.

5.4 Government Initiatives and Strategic Plans

The Government of Bangladesh has demonstrated a clear policy intent to address water pollution and ensure sustainable water management through various strategic plans and initiatives. The Department of Environment (DoE) is actively imposing an obligatory clause for industries to develop and implement a “3R strategy” (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) and “Zero Discharge” (ZD) plans.⁶⁵ These plans aim to significantly reduce the environmental footprint of industrial processes by minimizing waste generation and maximizing water recycling.

The government has also undertaken broader initiatives, often in collaboration with international organizations and development partners, to promote the installation of Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and enhance compliance across industries.³⁵ A notable example of this strategic planning is the Dhaka Sewerage Master Plan, an ambitious undertaking aimed at treating the majority of residential and industrial wastewater generated in the capital through the construction of several new Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs).²⁵ Furthermore, the government is actively investing in the construction of new Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) and upgrading existing facilities to improve overall treatment capacity and efficiency.²

These initiatives are underpinned by a robust legal framework, primarily the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA) of 1995 and the updated Environment Conservation Rules (ECR) 2023.⁵ These laws provide the regulatory backbone for mandating pollution control measures and ensuring environmental protection.

While the government’s strategic plans and initiatives demonstrate a strong policy direction towards addressing water pollution, the persistent challenges detailed in earlier sections, such as compliance issues, enforcement weaknesses, and infrastructure gaps, indicate that the implementation of these plans faces significant hurdles. This suggests that while policy intent is robust, the execution capacity and systemic barriers—including financial, technical, and human resource limitations—are hindering the full realization of these ambitious goals. Therefore, future government efforts need to focus not just on policy formulation but equally on strengthening institutional capacities, ensuring adequate resource allocation, and fostering greater accountability across all levels of implementation to bridge the gap between policy intent and tangible environmental improvements.

6. Case Studies and Impact Assessment

6.1 Notable ETP/STP/WTP Projects and their Outcomes

While Bangladesh faces significant water management challenges, several notable projects demonstrate successful interventions and offer valuable models for future scaling and replication.

• Dasherkandi Sewerage Treatment Plant (DSTP): Located in Dhaka, this project, undertaken by POWERCHINA, is recognized as South Asia’s largest individual Sewage Treatment Plant. Operational since July 2023, the DSTP has the capacity to treat domestic sewage generated by nearly 5 million people daily. Its operation has led to a significant reduction in water pollution in downtown Dhaka and a marked improvement in the water quality of multiple rivers. Beyond environmental benefits, the project has also contributed to public health by curbing waterborne diseases and has created thousands of local job opportunities during its construction phase.²¹
• Veolia MBR-based ETP (Textile Industry): Veolia implemented Bangladesh’s first Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)-based Effluent Treatment Plant in the textile industry. This project aimed to transition from conventional biochemical treatment to an advanced biological system to meet the stringent Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) aspirational guideline. Utilizing ZeeWeed* 500D MBR technology, the plant achieves high Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) reduction, producing water of Reverse Osmosis (RO) Feed Quality. Its modular design allows for phased capacity expansion, demonstrating the potential of advanced technologies to achieve high treatment standards even with limited space.⁶²
• Saidabad Water Treatment Plant (WTP): Designed by SUEZ and located near Dhaka, this WTP has a daily capacity of 450,000 m3/d and has been fully operational since 2012. It employs innovative double-stage pretreatment, clarification, filtration, and chlorination to purify water from the Shitalakshya river, effectively managing varying raw water properties. This plant is crucial for providing clean drinking water to a large segment of Dhaka’s population, with an expected output serving 7 million people.³²
• Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) Projects: Supported by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), DWASA has undertaken projects to significantly improve water distribution networks in Dhaka. These initiatives have established District Metered Areas (DMAs), successfully reducing non-revenue water (physical losses) from 40% to less than 15%. In commissioned DMAs, piped water supply is now available 24 hours a day, and water quality consistently meets national standards. These projects have also added numerous new household connections and focused on capacity building for DWASA staff, enhancing operational efficiency and service delivery.⁶⁷

These successful projects collectively demonstrate that the technical and operational expertise for effective, large-scale water treatment exists within Bangladesh. They serve as “beacons of success” within a broader context where overall treatment coverage and pollution levels remain a concern. The primary challenge, therefore, is not a lack of capability but rather one of scaling these successful models and overcoming the systemic barriers—financial, regulatory, and governance—that prevent them from becoming the norm across the country. These case studies provide invaluable blueprints and lessons learned for future interventions, highlighting what is achievable with strategic planning, appropriate technology, and dedicated implementation.

6.2 Impact on River Water Quality and Public Health

The impact of industrial and municipal discharges on Bangladesh’s river water quality and public health is severe and widespread. Rivers surrounding major cities, such as the Buriganga, Turag, Shitalakshya, and Karnaphuli, are critically polluted with heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and organic waste. These rivers often appear “pitch black and stingy in ordure,” characterized by alarmingly low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, frequently approaching zero in the dry season.²⁴

Studies in areas like Madhabdi municipality, despite the mandatory installation of ETPs, indicate that water quality still violates national standards for parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and DO. Concentrations of heavy metals like Chromium (Cr) and Lead (Pb) consistently exceed permissible limits, rendering the water unsuitable for both domestic and agricultural use.²⁴ Furthermore, observations around the Pagla STP in Dhaka suggest that its outfall contributes to the deterioration of the Buriganga-Dhaleswari system’s water quality, with higher BOD5 and COD values and lower DO levels downstream.⁶⁹

The direct consequences for public health are dire. Untreated wastewater is a primary vector for the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid.¹¹ The presence of antibiotics in water sources is particularly concerning, as it contributes to the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, making it harder to treat common infections.¹¹ Beyond immediate health impacts, the use of polluted river water for irrigation leads to the accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural crops, posing long-term health risks through contamination of the food chain.²⁴

The pervasive nature of water pollution in Bangladesh incurs an “invisible cost” that extends far beyond immediate environmental damage. The unsuitability of river water for agriculture impacts food security, while the accumulation of heavy metals in crops and fish introduces toxic substances into the human diet. The rise of waterborne diseases and antibiotic resistance places immense strain on public health systems and human well-being. These diffuse, long-term impacts are often not fully accounted for in conventional economic analyses of industrial profitability or development projects. Therefore, a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis of water treatment must incorporate these broader, often hidden, economic and social costs to fully justify the necessary investments and stricter enforcement measures required for effective pollution control.

7. Key Players and Solution Providers

Addressing Bangladesh’s complex water challenges involves a diverse ecosystem of stakeholders, ranging from government bodies and local private companies to international organizations and consulting firms. Their coordinated efforts are essential for developing and implementing sustainable environmental solutions.

Government Bodies:

• Department of Environment (DoE): This is the primary regulatory authority responsible for formulating and enforcing environmental standards, granting environmental clearances, and monitoring compliance of ETPs, STPs, and WTPs across the country.³
• Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI): As the national standards body, BSTI plays a crucial role in setting and ensuring adherence to drinking water quality standards.⁴
• Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA): This autonomous body is responsible for water supply and sewerage management within the Dhaka metropolitan area, including the operation of WTPs and STPs.¹¹
• Public Private Partnership Authority (PPPA): The PPPA facilitates the development and implementation of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects across various sectors, including the water sector, to bridge infrastructure gaps and mobilize private investment.⁶⁶

Private Sector Companies (ETP, STP, WTP Suppliers/Manufacturers):

Numerous private companies are actively involved in providing water treatment solutions in Bangladesh:

• Green Genesis Engineering Ltd (GGEL): Recognized for its innovative and cutting-edge ETP solutions, GGEL specializes in integrating water treatment processes, focusing on optimal performance, user-friendliness, and eco-friendly practices. The company also offers consultancy services.³⁰
• HydroTech Water Technology: With a long-standing presence in the ETP sector, HydroTech offers a wide range of ETP designs tailored to diverse industrial needs, including food and beverage, textiles, and chemicals.⁷¹
• Total Envirotech Solutions: This company provides a comprehensive suite of services, including the manufacturing, supply, installation, and after-sales support for ETPs, STPs, Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) plants, Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs), and water softening solutions.³¹
• Cleantech Engineering Limited: A rapidly growing firm, Cleantech specializes in designing and manufacturing customized ETPs and offers solutions for resource recovery, such as extracting valuable materials like chrome from industrial waste.⁷¹
• Trust Water Company: Driven by a mission for a cleaner Bangladesh, Trust Water Company provides advanced ETP solutions that often exceed minimum compliance requirements, with a specialization in textile wastewater treatment.⁷¹
• Daiki Axis BD: This company focuses on eco-friendly wastewater solutions, including ETPs and STPs, and incorporates advanced technologies like Johkasou systems for efficient sewage handling.¹⁶
• Ion Exchange Environment Management (BD): A pioneer since 1990, Ion Exchange offers cutting-edge engineering solutions for water and wastewater treatment, including ion exchange resins, membranes (Hydramem), specialty chemicals, and instrumentation & automation systems, serving various core industries.¹⁷
• Other notable providers include Water Logic BD ⁷⁶, Trity Enviro ²⁹, Cleanwater Engineering Services ⁷², Water Link Bangladesh ⁷², Pivot Engineering Limited ⁷², and Freewater4U.²⁰

Consulting Firms/Environmental Specialists:

• ENRAC Consulting Ltd.: As a large, autonomous, and multi-disciplinary environmental consulting firm, ENRAC provides services in environmental assessment, water resource management, natural resource management, and comprehensive project management.⁷⁷
• CEGIS (Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services): CEGIS offers intellectual services for water resource management, river management, policy studies, and research, contributing to sustainable development through innovative ideas and cutting-edge technologies.⁷⁸
• Engr. Razibur Rahman: Recognized as a leading ETP consultant, he provides tailored solutions for ETP, STP, ZLD, and WWTP projects, often through his companies Greenify Environmental Technology Ltd. and Total Envirotech Solutions.³¹

International Organizations/Development Partners:

• World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), International Finance Corporation (IFC), UNICEF, USAID, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA): These organizations provide crucial funding, technical assistance, and support for large-scale water supply and sanitation projects across Bangladesh.¹⁹
• 2030 Water Resources Group (WRG): WRG actively supports water pollution management through private sector engagement and the development of PPP models, aiming to mobilize significant public and private finance for wastewater management.¹⁹
• BRAC, Grundfos, Hydro Industries Ltd.: These entities have partnered on initiatives like the “Safe Water for All” project, focusing on developing commercially viable business models for water and effluent treatment.⁸¹

The extensive and diverse array of entities involved in Bangladesh’s environmental solutions sector indicates a complex ecosystem of expertise and resources. Successful projects often arise from strong collaborations among these various stakeholders, such as DWASA’s partnership with ADB or WRG’s work with the World Bank and IFC. This highlights that no single entity can unilaterally resolve Bangladesh’s multifaceted water challenges. Effective and sustainable water management necessitates a deeply integrated, multi-stakeholder approach, fostering stronger collaboration, comprehensive knowledge sharing, and coordinated investment among all these players to leverage their respective strengths and collectively overcome systemic barriers.

Table 5: Overview of Major Water Treatment Companies and Consulting Firms in Bangladesh

Company/Firm Name	Type	Key Specializations/Services	Notable Features/Strengths
Green Genesis Engineering Ltd (GGEL)	ETP/STP/WTP Supplier, Consultant	Cutting-edge ETP solutions, water treatment process integration, eco-friendly practices, consultancy services.	Pioneering innovation, optimal performance, user-friendliness, commitment to sustainability. 30
HydroTech Water Technology	ETP Supplier	Wide range of ETP designs for diverse industrial needs (food & beverage, textiles, chemicals).	Long-standing presence, highly skilled team, customized solutions. 71
Total Envirotech Solutions	ETP/STP/ZLD/WWTP Supplier, Consultant	Manufacturing, supply, installation, and after-sales services for ETPs, STPs, ZLD, WWTPs, water softening.	Comprehensive approach, industrial safety, laboratory equipment solutions. 31
Cleantech Engineering Limited	ETP Supplier	Designs and manufactures tailored ETPs, resource recovery solutions (e.g., chrome extraction).	Fast-growing, customized solutions, promotes environmental responsibility and resource recovery. 71
Trust Water Company	ETP Supplier	Advanced ETP solutions, specialized in textile wastewater treatment.	Mission-driven approach, goes beyond mere compliance, focuses on sustainable wastewater treatment. 71
Daiki Axis BD	ETP/STP Supplier	Eco-friendly wastewater solutions, Johkasou STP Technology.	Provides eco-friendly wastewater solutions, utilizes advanced compact systems. 16
Ion Exchange Environment Management (BD)	ETP/STP/WTP Supplier, Chemical/Membrane/Instrument Provider	Comprehensive water and wastewater treatment solutions, ion exchange resins, membranes (Hydramem), specialty chemicals, instruments & automation.	Pioneer since 1990, cutting-edge engineering solutions, 24/7 service, serves diverse core industries. 17
ENRAC Consulting Ltd.	Environmental Consulting Firm	Environment and resource analysis, design and planning, economics, social, resettlement, land acquisition, health & safety, project management, transportation, water.	Largest multi-disciplinary environmental consulting firm, provides appropriate, adequate, and sustainable solutions. 77
CEGIS (Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services)	Environmental Consulting Firm, Research	Water resource management, river management, policy studies, research, capacity development, socio-economic and livelihood management.	Extensive experience in intellectual services for water resource planning, unique organization for river dynamics. 78
Engr. Razibur Rahman	Environmental Consultant	Tailored solutions for ETP, STP, ZLD, WWTP.	Recognized as a leading ETP consultant, innovative solutions, hands-on experience, client-centric approach. 31

8. Recommendations for Sustainable Water Management

To address the pressing water challenges and achieve sustainable environmental solutions in Bangladesh, a multi-pronged and collaborative approach is imperative. The following recommendations are crucial for translating policy intent into tangible improvements in water quality and public health:

• Strengthen Regulatory Enforcement and Monitoring: The Department of Environment (DoE) must be significantly empowered through increased funding, expanded recruitment of skilled personnel, and the adoption of advanced monitoring technologies. This includes mandating and actively utilizing widespread IP cameras and real-time sensors in ETPs to ensure continuous and transparent compliance.⁸ Implementing stricter, more consistent penalties for non-compliance that genuinely outweigh the costs of operating ETPs is essential to create a strong deterrent.⁸ Furthermore, improving inter-agency coordination among the DoE, City Corporations, and Water Supply and Sewerage Authorities (WASAs) is vital to streamline enforcement, eliminate overlapping responsibilities, and close existing gaps in oversight.¹¹
• Invest in Modern Infrastructure and Technology Adoption: A substantial commitment is required to upgrade outdated ETPs and STPs with advanced technologies such as Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) and Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs). These technologies are necessary to effectively handle complex and emerging pollutants that conventional systems cannot address.¹⁵ Significant government and private investment must be channeled into constructing new municipal STPs, particularly in rapidly urbanizing areas, drawing valuable lessons from successful projects like the Dasherkandi STP.²¹ Incentivizing the development of local manufacturing capabilities for water treatment equipment could reduce reliance on expensive imports and alleviate the burden of high import taxes.⁸
• Address Skilled Manpower Shortages: To overcome the critical human capital deficit, comprehensive vocational and higher education programs in water and wastewater treatment, environmental engineering, and plant operations must be developed and expanded.¹⁵ Implementing robust training programs for existing plant operators and maintenance staff, with a strong focus on best practices for efficient and consistent operation, is equally important.⁵⁷ Creating attractive career pathways and effective retention strategies for skilled professionals in the water sector will help build a sustainable workforce.
• Foster Sustainable Financing Models: Expanding Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) across both municipal and industrial water treatment sectors is crucial to leverage private sector capital, technology, and operational expertise.¹⁹ Exploring and implementing diverse blended finance instruments, including green bonds, impact investment funds, and targeted refinancing schemes, can de-risk investments and attract greater private capital.⁵¹ A review and potential reduction of import duties on essential environmental protection technologies could significantly lower the cost burden on industries, making compliance more economically viable.⁸
• Promote Water Recycling, Reuse, and Resource Recovery: Rigorous enforcement and expansion of the 3R strategy (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) policies are essential. This must be accompanied by comprehensive technical support and financial incentives for industries to adopt these practices.⁶⁵ Investment in research and pilot projects for innovative water reuse technologies, such as rainwater harvesting, saline water conversion, and strategic floodwater storage for agricultural and industrial purposes, should be prioritized.¹⁸ Encouraging biogas recovery from STPs and ETPs can further reduce energy consumption and generate valuable revenue streams.¹⁶
• Enhance Public Awareness and Participation: Nationwide campaigns are necessary to educate both the general public and industrial stakeholders about the critical importance of wastewater treatment, water conservation, and the severe health risks associated with pollution.⁴ Promoting active community involvement in the planning, implementation, and monitoring of water treatment projects will foster a sense of ownership and contribute to their long-term sustainability.

9. Conclusion

The comprehensive analysis underscores the critical importance of Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs), Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs), and Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) for Bangladesh’s environmental sustainability and public health. The nation’s rapid industrialization and urbanization have placed immense strain on its water resources, leading to widespread pollution with severe ecological and health consequences. While a robust regulatory framework exists, significant challenges persist in its effective implementation.

The current landscape reveals a substantial gap between policy intent and on-ground reality. Industrial ETPs often face issues of non-operation and bypassing, municipal STPs have severely limited coverage, and access to truly “safely managed” drinking water remains a concern despite high rates of basic access. These shortcomings are rooted in systemic issues, including inadequate and outdated infrastructure, a critical shortage of skilled personnel, persistent financial constraints exacerbated by high import taxes on essential equipment, and pervasive weaknesses in regulatory enforcement. The emergence of new pollutants further complicates the treatment challenge, demanding more sophisticated solutions.

Despite these formidable obstacles, immense opportunities exist. The adoption of advanced treatment technologies like MBRs and AOPs offers pathways to higher treatment efficiencies and resource recovery. Innovative water recycling and reuse initiatives, including the pursuit of Zero Liquid Discharge and the strategic utilization of rainwater harvesting and saline water conversion, promise to transform wastewater from a liability into a valuable resource. Furthermore, the increasing embrace of Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) and blended finance models represents a crucial mechanism for mobilizing the substantial investments required to bridge the infrastructure and funding gaps. Successful projects like the Dasherkandi STP and Veolia’s MBR-based ETP demonstrate the technical feasibility and positive impact of such interventions.

Ultimately, achieving a cleaner, healthier future for Bangladesh’s water resources necessitates a multi-pronged, collaborative, and sustained effort. This requires concerted action from the government to strengthen regulatory enforcement and invest strategically in infrastructure and human capital; from industries to embrace genuine environmental stewardship and adopt advanced, sustainable practices; from civil society to advocate for change and participate in solutions; and from international partners to provide continued technical and financial support. Only through such integrated and dedicated endeavors can Bangladesh translate its policy aspirations into tangible improvements in water quality, ensuring a sustainable and healthy environment for its growing population.

Works cited

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